Journal: Experimental & Molecular Medicine

Article Title: GDF15 regulates development and growth of sympathetic neurons to enhance energy expenditure and thermogenesis

doi: 10.1038/s12276-025-01543-9

Figure Lengend Snippet: a – c Right: the surface area and volume of TH + sympathetic neurites in eWAT ( a ), iWAT ( b ) and BAT ( c ) of GDF15 -Tg and nontransgenic control mice ( n = 4 per group). Left: representative fluorescent images of light-sheet microscopy after lipid clearing and whole mounting are shown. Scale bar, 1 mm. d The EE of GDF15 -Tg mice and control mice monitored for 48 h (left) and that in the light or dark cycle (right) ( n = 6 for Con, n = 12 for Tg). The bold lines indicate the dark cycles. e , f The total body weight ( e ) and fat weight/body weight ( f ) of GDF15 -Tg mice and control mice ( n = 6 for Con, n = 12 for Tg). All data are shown as means ± s.e.m. Con, control; Tg, transgenic.* P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 by unpaired two-tailed Student’s t -test.

Article Snippet: GDF15 levels in serum separated from the peripheral blood were determined using Human GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kit (R&D Systems, DY957) and Mouse GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kits (R&D Systems, DY6385), according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Techniques: Control, Microscopy, Transgenic Assay, Two Tailed Test

Journal: Experimental & Molecular Medicine

Article Title: GDF15 regulates development and growth of sympathetic neurons to enhance energy expenditure and thermogenesis

doi: 10.1038/s12276-025-01543-9

Figure Lengend Snippet: a The rectal temperature of GDF15 -Tg and control mice monitored at 4 °C for 4 h ( n = 6 for Con, n = 12 for Tg). b The rectal temperature of GDF15- Tg and control mice at 4 °C and 25 °C ( n = 6 for Con, n = 12 for Tg). c The expression of genes of lipid catabolism and thermogenesis in the iWAT and BAT of GDF15 -Tg and control mice, assessed by real-time RT–PCR ( n = 6 per group). d The UCP1 immunohistochemistry of BAT and iWAT sections from GDF15 -Tg and control mice. Scale bar, 200 μm. e Levels of serum norepinephrine and epinephrine before (basal) and 30 min after insulin injection to GDF15 -Tg and control mice ( n = 6 for Con, n = 12 for Tg). f A real-time RT–PCR using mRNA from the iWAT and BAT of GDF15 -Tg and control mice and primers specific for the indicated genes of catecholamine synthesis ( n = 6 per group). g Blood glucose levels before (0) and after injection of insulin (1 U/kg) ( n = 6 for Con, n = 12 for Tg). h , i The systolic BP (SBP), diastolic BP (DBP), mean BP (MBP) ( h ) and heart rate ( i ) of GDF15 -Tg and control mice before (basal) and 60 min after insulin injection ( n = 9 for Con, n = 12 for Tg). All data are shown as means ± s.e.m. BPM, beats per min. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 by unpaired two-tailed Student’s t -test.

Article Snippet: GDF15 levels in serum separated from the peripheral blood were determined using Human GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kit (R&D Systems, DY957) and Mouse GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kits (R&D Systems, DY6385), according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Techniques: Control, Expressing, Quantitative RT-PCR, Immunohistochemistry, Injection, Two Tailed Test

Journal: Experimental & Molecular Medicine

Article Title: GDF15 regulates development and growth of sympathetic neurons to enhance energy expenditure and thermogenesis

doi: 10.1038/s12276-025-01543-9

Figure Lengend Snippet: a , b , Immunofluorescence images of GFRAL in the brainstem ( a ) and hypothalamus ( b ) of wild-type mice. Scale bar, 100 μm. c Right: the percentage of GFRAL + cells and the mean fluorescence intensity of GFRAL staining in AP/NTS and SCG sections of wild-type mice. Left: representative immunofluorescence images are shown. Rectangles are magnified. Scale bar, 100 μm. d Bottom: the mean fluorescence intensity of GFRAL staining and colocalization between GFRAL + and TH + neurons in SCG sections from GDF15 -Tg and control mice ( n = 5 for Con, n = 8 for Tg). Top: representative immunofluorescence images are shown. Insets are magnified. Scale bar, 50 μm. e Bottom: the c-Fos expression in GFRAL + and non-GFRAL + cells in SCG sections from GDF15 -Tg and control mice ( n = 5 for Con, n = 8 for Tg). Top: representative immunofluorescence images are shown. Insets are magnified. Scale bar, 50 μm. All data are shown as means ± s.e.m. DMX, dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus; CC, central canal; DMH, dorsomedial hypothalamus; VMH, ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus; 3V, third ventricle; NS, not significant. *** P < 0.001 by unpaired two-tailed Student’s t -test.

Article Snippet: GDF15 levels in serum separated from the peripheral blood were determined using Human GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kit (R&D Systems, DY957) and Mouse GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kits (R&D Systems, DY6385), according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Techniques: Immunofluorescence, Fluorescence, Staining, Control, Expressing, Two Tailed Test

Journal: Experimental & Molecular Medicine

Article Title: GDF15 regulates development and growth of sympathetic neurons to enhance energy expenditure and thermogenesis

doi: 10.1038/s12276-025-01543-9

Figure Lengend Snippet: a Right: the percentage area of entire TH + neuronal cells in SCG sections of GDF15 -Tg and control mice ( n = 5 for Con, n = 7 for Tg). Left: representative immunofluorescence images are shown. Rectangles are magnified. Scale bar, 50 μm. b Immunoblots of tissue extract of the SCGs from GDF15 -Tg and control mice using indicated antibodies. c A real-time RT–PCR using mRNA from the SCGs of GDF15 -Tg and control mice and primers specific for indicated genes ( n = 4 per group). d Immunoblots of the cultured SCGs treated with recombinant GDF15 or Veh using indicated antibodies. e A real-time RT–PCR using mRNA from the cultured SCGs treated with recombinant GDF15 or Veh and primers specific for indicated genes ( n = 4 per group). f Right: the numbers of neurite outgrowth and branch point and total neurite length in the cultured SCGs treated with recombinant GDF15 or Veh (right) ( n = 6 per group). Left: representative optical images are shown. Rectangles are magnified. Scale bar, 50 μm. All data are shown as means ± s.e.m. Veh, vehicle. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 by unpaired two-tailed Student’s t -test.

Article Snippet: GDF15 levels in serum separated from the peripheral blood were determined using Human GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kit (R&D Systems, DY957) and Mouse GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kits (R&D Systems, DY6385), according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Techniques: Control, Immunofluorescence, Western Blot, Quantitative RT-PCR, Cell Culture, Recombinant, Two Tailed Test

Journal: Experimental & Molecular Medicine

Article Title: GDF15 regulates development and growth of sympathetic neurons to enhance energy expenditure and thermogenesis

doi: 10.1038/s12276-025-01543-9

Figure Lengend Snippet: a – c Right: the surface area and volume of TH + sympathetic neurites in eWAT ( a ), iWAT ( b ) and BAT ( c ) of Gdf15 -KO and control mice ( n = 4 per group). Left: representative fluorescent images of light-sheet microscopy after lipid clearing and whole mounting are shown. Scale bar, 1 mm. d , e The total body weight ( d ) and fat weight/body weight ( e ) of Gdf15 -KO and control mice ( n = 10 per group). f The EE of Gdf15 -KO and control mice monitored for 48 h (left) and that in the light or dark cycle (right) ( n = 10 per group). The bold lines indicate the dark cycles. All data are shown as means ± s.e.m. Con, control; KO, knockout; n.s., not significant. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 by unpaired two-tailed Student’s t -test.

Article Snippet: GDF15 levels in serum separated from the peripheral blood were determined using Human GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kit (R&D Systems, DY957) and Mouse GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kits (R&D Systems, DY6385), according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Techniques: Control, Microscopy, Knock-Out, Two Tailed Test

Journal: Experimental & Molecular Medicine

Article Title: GDF15 regulates development and growth of sympathetic neurons to enhance energy expenditure and thermogenesis

doi: 10.1038/s12276-025-01543-9

Figure Lengend Snippet: a The rectal temperature of Gdf15 -KO and control mice monitored at 4 °C for 4 h ( n = 10 per group). b The rectal temperature of Gdf15 -KO and control mice at 4 °C and 25 °C ( n = 10 per group). c The expression of genes of lipid catabolism and thermogenesis in the iWAT and BAT from Gdf15 -KO and control mice, assessed by real-time RT–PCR ( n = 5 per group). d The UCP1 immunohistochemistry of BAT and iWAT sections from Gdf15 -KO and control mice. Scale bar, 200 μm. e Levels of serum norepinephrine and epinephrine before (basal) and 30 min after insulin (1 U/kg) injection to Gdf15 -KO and control mice ( n = 10 per group). f The real-time RT–PCR using mRNA from iWAT and BAT of Gdf15 -KO and control mice and primers specific for indicated genes of catecholamine synthesis ( n = 5 per group). g Blood glucose levels before (0) and after insulin (1 U/kg) injection to Gdf15 -KO and control mice ( n = 10 per group). h , i ,The systolic BP (SBP), diastolic BP (DBP), mean BP (MBP) ( h ) and heart rate ( i ) of Gdf15 -KO and control mice before (basal) and 60 min after insulin injection ( n = 10 per group). All data are shown as means ± s.e.m. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001 by unpaired two-tailed Student’s t -test.

Article Snippet: GDF15 levels in serum separated from the peripheral blood were determined using Human GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kit (R&D Systems, DY957) and Mouse GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA Kits (R&D Systems, DY6385), according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

Techniques: Control, Expressing, Quantitative RT-PCR, Immunohistochemistry, Injection, Two Tailed Test

Journal: Molecular metabolism

Article Title: Bitter-tasting drugs tune GDF15 and GLP-1 expression via bitter taste or motilin receptors in the intestine of patients with obesity.

doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2024.102002

Figure Lengend Snippet: Figure 1: Effect of oral intake of Plaquenil on GDF15 and ghrelin plasma levels, and hunger scores in healthy volunteers. A) Time-dependent changes in plasma GDF15 levels after oral ingestion of Plaquenil or placebo in healthy volunteers (n ¼ 10; *P < 0.05: versus baseline [10 min], ##P < 0.01: versus the placebo condition; ANCOVA mixed model). Dashed line: trendline in the fasted state; dotted line: extrapolation from trendline in the fasted state. B and C) Oral intake of Plaquenil, but not placebo, resulted in a negative correlation between GDF15 plasma levels and hungers scores measured between 0 and 90 min after administration. (n ¼ 10; Pearson correlation coefficient within individuals was transformed into Fisher z to calculate the average coefficient [r] and P values). D and E) Oral intake of Plaquenil, but not placebo, resulted in a negative correlation between GDF15 plasma levels and ghrelin plasma levels measured between 0 and 90 min after administration. (n ¼ 10; Pearson correlation coefficient within individuals was transformed into Fisher z to calculate the average coefficient [r] and P values).All data were presented as mean SEM.

Article Snippet: GDF15 protein levels in the cell culture supernatant and cell lysate were measured using a Human GDF-15 ELISA Kit (Boster Biological Technology), following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Techniques: Clinical Proteomics, Transformation Assay

Journal: Molecular metabolism

Article Title: Bitter-tasting drugs tune GDF15 and GLP-1 expression via bitter taste or motilin receptors in the intestine of patients with obesity.

doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2024.102002

Figure Lengend Snippet: Figure 2: Distribution and characterization of GDF15 expressing epithelial cells in the proximal gut of normal-weight individuals and patients with obesity. A) Relative mRNA expression (efficiencyDDCt method) of GDF15 in resection specimens from the fundus (nNW ¼ 7, nOB ¼ 10), corpus (nNW ¼ 5, nOB ¼ 8), antrum (nNW ¼ 5, nOB ¼ 8), and jejunum (nNW ¼ 5, nOB ¼ 7) of normal-weight individuals and patients with obesity. (Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). B) Representative single-immunofluorescence staining for GDF15 in jejunal sections (10 mm) of a normal-weight individual and a patient with obesity. GDF15þ cells were stained with Cy3 (green) and nuclei were stained with DAPI (blue). Scale bars: 25 mm. C) Average number and intensity of GDF15þ cells in jejunal tissue sections from both normal-weight individuals and patients with obesity (nNW ¼ 5, nOB ¼ 5; two-tailed unpaired Student’s t-test). DeH) Representative double-immunofluorescence staining for GDF15 (green [Cy3 or Alexa594]) with markers for (D) goblet (MUC2: red [Cy5]), (E) Paneth (a-defensin 6: red [Cy5]) or (FeG) enteroendocrine (CHGA: red [Alexa488]) and ghrelin (red [Alexa488]) cells in jejunal sections (10 mm) from normal-weight individuals. Arrows indicate co-localization. Normal rabbit serum was used as negative control. Nuclei were labeled with DAPI (blue). Scale bars: 25 mm. NW: normal-weight, OB: obese. Data of figure A, C represent mean SEM and single values are plotted. *P < 0.05: versus jejunum in normal-weight individuals, $$$P < 0.001: versus jejunum in patients with obesity, #P < 0.05, ###P < 0.001: versus normal-weight individuals.

Article Snippet: GDF15 protein levels in the cell culture supernatant and cell lysate were measured using a Human GDF-15 ELISA Kit (Boster Biological Technology), following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Techniques: Expressing, Staining, Two Tailed Test, Negative Control, Labeling

Journal: Molecular metabolism

Article Title: Bitter-tasting drugs tune GDF15 and GLP-1 expression via bitter taste or motilin receptors in the intestine of patients with obesity.

doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2024.102002

Figure Lengend Snippet: Figure 3: Effects of bitter generalists and intermediates on GDF15 or GLP-1 expression in jejunal crypts from patients with obesity. A) Effect of 4-hour stimulation with 100 mM HCQS on relative GDF15 mRNA expression (efficiencyDDCt method) (n ¼ 5; two-tailed paired Student’s t-test). B) Effect of 4-hour stimulation with 100 mM HCQS on relative GLP-1 mRNA expression (efficiencyDDCt method) (n ¼ 5; two-tailed paired Student’s t-test). C) Effect of bitter generalists on fold change in relative GDF15 mRNA expression after 4 h of stimulation (n ¼ 6e9; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). D) Effect of bitter intermediates on fold change in relative GDF15 mRNA expression after 4 h of stimulation (n ¼ 4e6; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). E) Relative GDF15 secretion in the supernatant of primary crypts from patients with obesity stimulated with 1 mM azithromycin. Azithromycin was removed after 4 h for the 24-hour timepoint (n ¼ 3e6; one-tailed paired Student’s t-test). F) Relative GLP-1 secretion in the supernatant of primary crypts from patients with obesity stimulated with 1 mM azithromycin for 6 h (n ¼ 3; two-tailed paired Student’s t-test). All data are present as mean SEM and single values are plotted. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001: versus the vehicle group.

Article Snippet: GDF15 protein levels in the cell culture supernatant and cell lysate were measured using a Human GDF-15 ELISA Kit (Boster Biological Technology), following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Techniques: Expressing, Two Tailed Test, One-tailed Test

Journal: Molecular metabolism

Article Title: Bitter-tasting drugs tune GDF15 and GLP-1 expression via bitter taste or motilin receptors in the intestine of patients with obesity.

doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2024.102002

Figure Lengend Snippet: Figure 4: Effects of bitter specialists on GDF15 mRNA or protein expression in primary jejunal crypts from patients with obesity. A) Effect of specialists on relative GDF15 mRNA expression after 4 h of stimulation (n ¼ 4e7; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). B) Representative single-immunofluorescence staining for GDF15 (green [Cy3]) in primary crypts treated with 1 mM gallic acid or vehicle after 24 h with 4 h stimulation. Nuclei were labeled with DAPI (blue). Scale bars: 20 mm. C) Average intensity of GDF15þ cells in primary crypts treated with 1 mM gallic acid or vehicle. Gallic acid was removed after 4 h of stimulation and staining was performed 20 h later (n ¼ 4; two-tailed paired Student’s t-test). D) Relative GDF15 secretion in the supernatant of primary crypts stimulated with 3 mM acetaminophen for 6 h (n ¼ 3; one-tailed paired Student’s t-test). E) Relative GDF15 secretion in the supernatant of primary crypts stimulated with 3 mM acetaminophen. Acetaminophen was removed after 4 h for the 24-hour timepoint (n ¼ 3; one-tailed paired Student’s t-test). F) Venn diagram of bitter compounds that affected GDF15 and/or GLP-1 mRNA expression after stimulation or primary crypts for 4 h. Asterisk (*) indicates an inhibitory effect on mRNA expression; the use of hashtags (#) signifies potential variations in the effects on GDF15 or GLP-1 mRNA, depending on the genotype of the patients. Data of figure A, C, D, E are present as mean SEM and single values are plotted. **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001: versus the vehicle group.

Article Snippet: GDF15 protein levels in the cell culture supernatant and cell lysate were measured using a Human GDF-15 ELISA Kit (Boster Biological Technology), following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Techniques: Expressing, Staining, Labeling, Two Tailed Test, One-tailed Test

Journal: Molecular metabolism

Article Title: Bitter-tasting drugs tune GDF15 and GLP-1 expression via bitter taste or motilin receptors in the intestine of patients with obesity.

doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2024.102002

Figure Lengend Snippet: Figure 5: Role of TAS2Rs and the motilin receptor in the effect of bitter agonists on GDF15 or GLP-1 expression in primary crypts from patients with obesity. A) The TAS2R antagonist, GIV3727 (110 mM) blocked the effect of gallic acid (1 mM) on GDF15 mRNA expression (efficiencyDDCt method) (n ¼ 4; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). B) GIV3727 (110 mM) did not block the effect of gallic acid (1 mM) on GLP-1 mRNA expression (efficiencyDDCt method) (n ¼ 4; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). C) GIV3727 (110 mM) did not block the effect of azithromycin (75 mM) on GDF15 mRNA expression (efficiencyDDCt method) (n ¼ 3; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). D) The motilin receptor antagonist MA-2029 blocked the effect of azithromycin (75 mM) on GDF15 mRNA expression (efficiencyDDCt method) (n ¼ 4; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). E) C12-O-AHL (0.15 mM) increased relative GDF15 mRNA expression in primary crypts from obese patients with TAS2R4(GG/CG) (n ¼ 9) but not TAS2R4(CC) (n ¼ 4) genotype (Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). F) C12-O-AHL (0.15 mM) decreased GLP-1 mRNA expression in primary crypts from obese patients with the TAS2R4(GG/CG) (n ¼ 9) but not the TAS2R4(CC) genotype (n ¼ 4). (Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). G) Aloin at 30 mM (white dots) and 100 mM (black dots) decreased relative GDF15 mRNA expression in primary crypts from obese patients with the TAS2R43(þ)GG/CG (n ¼ 9) but not the TAS2R43(þ)CC (n ¼ 6) or TAS2R43() (n ¼ 6) genotype (Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). H) Aloin at 30 mM (white dots) and 100 mM (black dots) did not affect the relative GLP-1 mRNA expression in primary crypts from obese patients with the TAS2R43(þ) GG/GC (n ¼ 9), TAS2R43(þ) CC (n ¼ 6), or TAS2R43() (n ¼ 4) genotype (Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). IeK) Representative double-immunofluorescence images for GDF15 (green [Cy3]) and TAS2R4 (red [Cy5]), TAS2R43 (red [Cy5]) or TAS2R10 (red [Cy5]) in jejunal sections (10 mm thickness) from normal-weight populations. Arrows indicate co-localization. Nuclei were labeled with DAPI (blue). Scale bars: 20 mm. MeO) Representative double-immunofluorescence images for GDF15 (green [Cy3]) and TAS2R4 (red [Cy5]), TAS2R43 (red [Cy5]) or TAS2R10 (red [Cy5]) in primary jejunal crypt from patients with obesity. Arrows indicate co-localization. Nuclei were labeled with DAPI (blue). Scale bars: 20 mm. (L and P) Normal rabbit serum as a negative control. Nuclei were labeled with DAPI (blue). Scale bars: 20 mm. Data of figure AeH are presented as mean SEM and single values are plotted. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001: versus vehicle group, ##P < 0.01, ###P < 0.001: bitter treatment antagonist, $P < 0.05: versus TAS2R4(CC) population, &P < 0.05: versus TAS2R43() population.

Article Snippet: GDF15 protein levels in the cell culture supernatant and cell lysate were measured using a Human GDF-15 ELISA Kit (Boster Biological Technology), following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Techniques: Expressing, Blocking Assay, Labeling, Negative Control

Journal: Molecular metabolism

Article Title: Bitter-tasting drugs tune GDF15 and GLP-1 expression via bitter taste or motilin receptors in the intestine of patients with obesity.

doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2024.102002

Figure Lengend Snippet: Figure 6: Role of the unfolded protein response pathway in the effect of bitter agonists on GDF15 and GLP1 mRNA expression in primary crypts from patients with obesity. A) Positive correlation between Log2 fold change of GDF15 and DDIT3 mRNA expression induced by bitter agonists (bitter: DB, AZI, GA, PHE, EM, ACE, BERB; n ¼ 4e5/bitter treatment; Pearson correlation coefficient [r]; P value on graph). B) Positive correlation between Log2 fold change of GDF15 and ATF4 mRNA expression induced by bitter agonists from figure A (n ¼ 4e5/bitter treatment; Pearson correlation coefficient [r]; P value on graph). C) Positive correlation between Log2 fold change of DDIT3 and ATF4 mRNA expression induced by bitter agonist from figure A (n ¼ 4e5/bitter treatment; Pearson correlation coefficient [r]; P value on graph). D) ISRIB (5 mM) blocked the effect of gallic acid (1 mM) on GDF15 mRNA expression (n ¼ 3; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). E) ISRIB (5 mM) did not affect the effects of gallic acid (1 mM) on GLP-1 mRNA expression (n ¼ 2; Proc Mixed Model with Sidák correction for multiple comparisons). Data are presented as mean SEM and single values are plotted. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001: versus vehicle group, ##P < 0.01: bitter treatment antagonist.

Article Snippet: GDF15 protein levels in the cell culture supernatant and cell lysate were measured using a Human GDF-15 ELISA Kit (Boster Biological Technology), following the manufacturer’s protocol.

Techniques: Expressing

Journal: Molecular Metabolism

Article Title: Muscle weakness and mitochondrial stress occur before severe metastasis in a novel mouse model of ovarian cancer cachexia

doi: 10.1016/j.molmet.2024.101976

Figure Lengend Snippet: The effects of ID8 implantation on muscle mass, fat mass, spleen mass, GDF15 and gene expression of inflammation and atrogenes. Analysis of muscle mass at all time points in hindlimb muscles was completed (A, n = 22–24; soleus (SOL), extensor digitorum longus (EDL), plantaris (PLA), tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius (GA) and quadriceps (QUAD)). Subcutaneous adipose mass in the inguinal fat depot (B, n = 9–12), serum GDF15 (C, n = 8–11) and spleen mass (D, n = 21–22) were also analyzed. mRNA content of inflammatory and atrophy markers interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor – alpha (TNF-α), atrogin and muscle RING-finger protein-1 (MURF-1) were measured using quantitative PCR in the TA and diaphragm of all groups (E-H, n = 6–8). Results represent mean ± SD. Lettering denotes statistical significance when different from each other ( p < 0.05). C57BL/6J female mice ∼75 days post PBS injection as controls (CTRL); C57BL/6J female mice ∼45 days post ovarian cancer injection (45 Days); C57BL/6J female mice ∼75 days post ovarian cancer injection (75 Days); C57BL/6J female mice ∼90 days post ovarian cancer injection (90 Days). All data was analyzed using a one-way ANOVA or Kruskal–Wallis test when data did not fit normality. All ANOVAs were followed by a two-stage step-up method of Benjamini, Krieger and Yukutieli multiple comparisons test.

Article Snippet: GDF15 (Growth differentiation factor 15) levels were analyzed in serum using the mouse GDF-15 DuoSet ELISA kit according to the manufacturer's instructions (R&D Systems DY6385).

Techniques: Gene Expression, Muscles, Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction, Injection